Are you planning a wedding in the near future? If so, Congratulations!
But if the medical examination pranikah had been in one of your busy schedule before the wedding?
IF NOT, JADWALKANLAH IMMEDIATE ... .!!!!
Almost every person wants happiness households will dijalaninya.Salah one important factor will determine the happiness of marriage is your health, because if one of both of you have any health problems, not the happiness felt by dependable seutuhnya.
According to WHO, the family is a quality I do harmonious family, the reason the family is in the physical, psychological, social, spiritual. Therefore advisable to conduct medical examination before entering the stage in order to realize the family wedding I qualified.
Premarital Panel Definitions (Health Check Up Pranikah)
Panel is a group of premarital examination laboratory to ensure the health status of the two prospective bridegroom, especially to detect the disease, chronic or derived resoluble affect health and fertility pair fetus.
Is Making Premarital Health Examination?
Very Please With pranikah health checks do you actually have made a pair and preventive action, especially the problem of the possibility of reproductive health (fertility) and genetics (offspring) of each.
With the condition know as early as possible each and will be easier for you in prevention efforts do you may cause miscarriage or aberration even for your descendants.
What is Keep Reviewed?
• The state of your health both in general
• diabetes affect pregnancy and weather are decreased
• Hepatitis B become serious health problems do, both for penderitanya and their families.
• Diseases such as the descendants of the other Thalassemia, hemofilia. Both can be derived through marriage or with their pengidapnya emulative carrier.
• Rhesus blood group incompatibility.
• There is not the result Relationships Sexual Diseases.
When Health Inspection should be done?
There is no certainty you strictly a matter of waktu.Akan but ideally, medical examination conducted pranikah held six months before the wedding. Pertimbangannya, if there is something of a problem on the medical examination, both candidates memmpelai, there is still enough time for counseling or treatment of disease suffered.
Size was also flexible. This means pranikah health checks can be made at any time during the marriage has not lasted.
Premarital Panel
1. Hematologi Routine
2. Urine Rutine
3. Blood Type (A, B, O) and Rhesus
4. Glucosa Fasting
5. HBsAg
6. VDRL / RPR
7. Blood picture edges
8. Anti-Rubella IgG, Anti Toxoplasma IgG, Anti-CMV IgG
Jumat, 06 Maret 2009
Selasa, 25 November 2008
Dark Chocolate Is Healthy Chocolate Dark Chocolate Has Health Benefits Not Seen in Other Varieties
Aug. 27, 2003 -- Got high blood pressure? Try a truffle. Worried about heart disease? Buy a bon-bon.
It's the best medical news in ages. Studies in two prestigious scientific journals say dark chocolate -- but not white chocolate or milk chocolate -- is good for you.
Dark Chocolate Lowers Blood Pressure
Dark chocolate -- not white chocolate -- lowers high blood pressure, say Dirk Taubert, MD, PhD, and colleagues at the University of Cologne, Germany. Their report appears in the Aug. 27 issue of The Journal of the American Medical Association.
But that's no license to go on a chocolate binge. Eating more dark chocolate can help lower blood pressure -- if you've reached a certain age and have mild high blood pressure, say the researchers. But you have to balance the extra calories by eating less of other things.
Antioxidants in Dark Chocolate
Dark chocolate -- but not milk chocolate or dark chocolate eaten with milk -- is a potent antioxidant, report Mauro Serafini, PhD, of Italy's National Institute for Food and Nutrition Research in Rome, and colleagues. Their report appears in the Aug. 28 issue of Nature. Antioxidants gobble up free radicals, destructive molecules that are implicated in heart disease and other ailments.
"Our findings indicate that milk may interfere with the absorption of antioxidants from chocolate ... and may therefore negate the potential health benefits that can be derived from eating moderate amounts of dark chocolate."
Translation: Say "Dark, please," when ordering at the chocolate counter. Don't even think of washing it down with milk. And if health is your excuse for eating chocolate, remember the word "moderate" as you nibble.
The Studies
Taubert's team signed up six men and seven women aged 55-64. All had just been diagnosed with mild high blood pressure -- on average, systolic blood pressure (the top number) of 153 and diastolic blood pressure (the bottom number) of 84.
Every day for two weeks, they ate a 100-gram candy bar and were asked to balance its 480 calories by not eating other foods similar in nutrients and calories. Half the patients got dark chocolate and half got white chocolate.
Those who ate dark chocolate had a significant drop in blood pressure (by an average of 5 points for systolic and an average of 2 points for diastolic blood pressure). Those who ate white chocolate did not.
In the second study, Serafini's team signed up seven healthy women and five healthy men aged 25-35. On different days they each ate 100 grams of dark chocolate by itself, 100 grams of dark chocolate with a small glass of whole milk, or 200 grams of milk chocolate.
An hour later, those who ate dark chocolate alone had the most total antioxidants in their blood. And they had higher levels of epicatechin, a particularly healthy compound found in chocolate. The milk chocolate eaters had the lowest epicatechin levels of all.
Jumat, 10 Oktober 2008
Rabies
Know before you go!
Infectious diseases not necessarily common in Canada can occur and may even be widespread in other countries. Standards of hygiene and medical care may differ from those at home. Before departure, you should learn about the health conditions in the country or countries you plan to visit, your own risk of disease and the steps you can take to prevent illness.
The risk is yours
Your risk of acquiring a disease depends on several factors. They include: your age, gender, immunization status and current state of health; your itinerary, duration and style of travel (e.g., first class, adventure) and anticipated travel activities (e.g., animal contact, exposure to fresh water, sexual contact); as well as the local disease situation.
Risk assessment consultation
The Public Health Agency of Canada strongly recommends that your travel plans include contacting a travel medicine clinic or physician 6 to 8 weeks before departure. Based on your individual risk assessment, a health care professional can determine your need for immunizations and/or preventive medication (prophylaxis) and advise you on precautions to avoid disease.
Some facts from the experts
The information below has been developed and is updated in consultation with Public Health Agency of Canada's Committee to Advise on Tropical Medicine and Travel (CATMAT). The recommendations are intended as general advice about the prevention of measles for Canadians travelling internationally.
Disease profile |
Rabies is a viral infection of animals that can be transmitted to humans. It is caused by a virus of the Rhabdoviridae family, which attacks the central nervous system and eventually affects the brain. The virus is usually found in the saliva of an infected animal. Rabies is almost always fatal once symptoms occur.
Transmission
Rabies can occur in any warm-blooded animal, domestic and wild. Commonly, rabies has been transmitted to humans from dogs, cats, foxes, raccoons, skunks, monkeys, wolves and bats. As well, animals having potential interactions with people such as cattle, horses and deer can acquire rabies and may transmit the disease to humans.
The virus is transmitted through close contact with the saliva of infected animals, most often by a bite or scratch or by licks on broken skin or mucous membranes, such as the eyes, nose or mouth. In very rare cases, person-to-person transmission has occurred when saliva droplets were dispersed in the air.
Injury to the upper body or face poses the greatest risk of transmission. The risk of children is estimated to be four times greater than adults, and boys are at greater risk than girls.
Geographic distribution and incidence trends |
The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that more deaths occur worldwide from rabies than from other common infections such as dengue fever, polio, meningococcal meningitis or Japanese encephalitis. Of the 50,000 human rabies deaths reported annually, it is estimated that over 30,000 deaths occur in the Indian Sub-Continent with most of the remaining cases occurring in South-East Asia (particularly, the Philippines), Africa and Latin America.
In most countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America, infected dogs are responsible for most of the rabies deaths. India has a dog population of 50 million. Thailand has 10 million dogs for its population of 58 million. In Bangkok it is estimated that one in 10 stray dogs is infected.
In developed countries, rabies is found mainly in wild animals, from which infection can spread to domestic animals and humans. In Canada, the incidence of human rabies has substantially decreased, which is associated with the increase of rabies vaccination in domestic animals. However, rabies among wildlife - especially bats, raccoons and skunks - has become more prevalent in North America.
Although rabies is rare in international travellers overall, a significant proportion of deaths caused by rabies is reported among people in the developed world who acquired the disease while travelling. Over a period of 17 years, 33% of rabies cases reported in the United States acquired their infection in other countries. The UK reported 12 cases of rabies over 20 years, 10 of which came from the Indian Sub-Continent. In France, 18 of the 19 cases of rabies reported over a 20-year period were acquired abroad, the vast majority in Africa. There has been one Canadian case of rabies acquired abroad in the seven decades since statistics have been kept.
Symptoms |
The time from exposure to first symptoms (i.e., incubation period) for rabies varies. It can be as short as 5 days, or as long as several years, usually taking 20 to 60 days. The first symptoms are usually non-specific, flu-like symptoms - fever, tiredness, headache that may last for a few days. In the acute stage, which quickly follows, an individual exhibits anxiety, confusion, insomnia, agitation, hallucinations and hyperactivity (furious rabies) or paralysis (dumb rabies). The acute period usually ends after 2 to 10 days. In both furious and dumb rabies, a complete paralysis develops, followed by coma. Death occurs during the first 7 days of illness without intensive care.
Testing and Treatment |
It is very important to act quickly if an individual thinks he/she may have been exposed to rabies. Treatment for rabies is effective, but only if an individual begins treatment early.
Immediately following an exposure to a suspected rabies carrier through a bite, scratch or lick, an individual should:
- vigorously wash and flush the wound or point of contact with soap and water and apply alcohol or iodine, if available
- seek medical attention for post-exposure vaccination and, if necessary, wound care.
Vaccines
One vaccine against rabies is licensed for use in Canada. The vaccine is very effective, causes few adverse reactions, and is fairly expensive. The vaccine provides immunity to rabies when administered for protection before an exposure (pre-exposure prophylaxis) or after an exposure (post-exposure prophylaxis).
1- Vaccination before travel
Pre-exposure vaccination includes three doses given over 1 month. If an individual is subsequently exposed to rabies, two further doses will be needed.Determining the need for pre-travel vaccination is complex: a personal risk assessment prior to travel will weigh an individual's risk of exposure with other factors such as itinerary, planned activities, rabies occurrence in countries to be visited, availability of vaccine in country of travel and the cost of the vaccine. Pre-exposure rabies vaccination is not usually recommended for the general traveller. It may be considered for those with the greatest risk of animal exposure, such as:
- veterinarians,
- farm workers,
- spelunkers (cave explorers),
- young children who may not understand the need to stay away from animals or to report any bite,
- travellers in areas of high rabies activity where there is limited access to post-exposure prophylaxis.
2- Vaccination following an exposure
If an individual was not vaccinated before travel with three doses, a full course of five vaccine doses, plus one dose of the rabies immunoglobulin (RIG) are needed following exposure. Both the vaccine and RIG can be hard to obtain in some developing countries.Once a post-exposure vaccine series has been started, the traveller should obtain as much information about the vaccine used as possible (e.g., manufacturer, type of doses, vaccination schedule used), so that treatment may continue without delay on his/her return to Canada. This information is important; without it, the traveller may have to restart the complete series, as partial vaccination may not prevent a fatal case of rabies.
Prevention and personal precautions |
Recommendations
Public Health Agency of Canada strongly recommends all travellers obtain an individual risk assessment from a physician or travel medicine clinic before departure to determine their particular risk for rabies exposure. The need for vaccination is difficult to assess. A thorough risk assessment takes into consideration a traveller's proposed activities and itinerary, the cost of the vaccine and the availability of the vaccine while travelling.
Public Health Agency of Canada further recommends that travellers take personal precautions to avoid rabies exposure by:
- avoiding direct contact with unfamiliar wild or domestic animals, especially dogs in developing countries;
- not handling, feeding, or unintentionally attracting wild animals with open garbage cans or litter;
- instructing children to avoid unfamiliar wild or domestic animals, even if they appear friendly;
- preventing bats from entering living quarters.
If exposed to a potentially rabid animal:
- wash the area or wound thoroughly with soap and water, and
- seek medical attention immediately.
Domestic pets may be a risk for rabies exposure. If travelling with a pet:
- keep pets' rabies vaccinations up-to-date;
- keep pets under tight control to avoid contact with wild and/or other animals.
If travellers encounter any difficulty in obtaining a post-exposure vaccine, they should contact the nearest Canadian embassy or consulate.
Some things to think about... |
Given the unpredictable nature of a potential rabies exposure, consider all stray animals to be infected with rabies and avoid contact. As well, be aware that should contact occur, treatment for rabies exposure is not available everywhere.
For more information...
-
For more Know before you go! information, click here.
-
For world rabies trends information provided by the WHO, go to CCDR Canada Communicable Disease Report - Volume 26-02, 15 January 2000.
-
Communicable Disease Surveillance and Response Division of the WHO offers more info on post-exposure treatment and surveillance
of rabies worldwide;
- To see essential rabies maps and listing of the most current global incidence rates for rabies, go to: Essential rabies maps
Mental Health
This site is designed to provide convenient access to a range of online materials related to the promotion of mental health, the planning, delivery, cost and evaluation of mental health programs and services in Canada, and the mental health issues, problems and disorders encountered by Canadians. The information is drawn from many areas within the Public Health Agency of Canada and other federal departments and agencies. Selected links to other sites are also included. Click on the menu categories for more information.
Nova Scotia Health Card (MSI)
Nova Scotia's Health Insurance Programs are designed to provide eligible residents with coverage for medically required hospital, medical, dental and optometric services with some restrictions.
The Medical Services Insurance Programs are administered by Medavie Blue Cross on behalf of the Nova Scotia government. The Department of Health provides policy direction for the programs. The Hospital Insurance Program is administered directly by the Department of Health. The cost of providing these services to Nova Scotians is met through the general revenues of the province. You pay no premiums.
Please carry your signed Nova Scotia Health Card with you at all times. You must present it to the physician and/or hospital each time you need insured hospital or physician services.
This website is designed to provide Nova Scotians with general information on the features and benefits of Nova Scotia Medical Services Insurance. Changes may be made from time to time.
Jumat, 05 September 2008
What is Vibrio
Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a bacterium in the same family as those that cause cholera. It lives in brackish saltwater and causes gastrointestinal illness in humans. V. parahaemolyticus naturally inhabits coastal waters in the United States and Canada and is present in higher concentrations during summer; it is a halophilic, or salt-requiring organism.
Back to Top
What type of illness is caused by V. parahaemolyticus?
When ingested, V. parahaemolyticus causes watery diarrhea often with abdominal cramping, nausea, vomiting, fever and chills. Usually these symptoms occur within 24 hours of ingestion. Illness is usually self-limited and lasts 3 days. Severe disease is rare and occurs more commonly in persons with weakened immune systems. V. parahaemolyticus can also cause an infection of the skin when an open wound is exposed to warm seawater.
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How does infection with V. parahaemolyticus occur?
Most people become infected by eating raw or undercooked shellfish, particularly oysters. Less commonly, this organism can cause an infection in the skin when an open wound is exposed to warm seawater.
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How common is infection with V. parahaemolyticus?
An estimated 4500 cases of V. parahaemolyticus infection occur each year in the United States. However, the number of cases reported to CDC is much lower because surveillance is complicated by underreporting. Laboratories rarely use the selective medium that is necessary to identify this organism, and it is likely that many cases are undetected. To improve our ability to monitor trends, infections caused by V. parahaemolyticus and other Vibrio species became nationally notifiable in 2007. State health departments report cases to CDC, and these reports are summarized annually.
Back to Top
How is V. parahaemolyticus infection diagnosed?
Vibrio organisms can be isolated from cultures of stool, wound, or blood. For isolation from stool, use of a selective medium that has thiosulfate, citrate, bile salts, and sucrose (TCBS agar) is recommended. If there is clinical suspicion for infection with this organism, the microbiology laboratory should be notified so that they will perform cultures using this medium. A physician should suspect V. parahaemolyticus infection if a patient has watery diarrhea and has eaten raw or undercooked seafood, especially oysters, or when a wound infection occurs after exposure to seawater.
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How is V. parahaemolyticus treated?
Treatment is not necessary in most cases of V. parahaemolyticus infection. There is no evidence that antibiotic treatment decreases the severity or the length of the illness. Patients should drink plenty of liquids to replace fluids lost through diarrhea. In severe or prolonged illnesses, antibiotics such as tetracycline or ciprofloxicin can be used. The choice of antibiotics should be based on antimicrobial susceptibilities of the organism.
Back to Top
How do oysters get contaminated with V. parahaemolyticus?
Vibrio is a naturally occurring organism commonly found in waters where oysters are cultivated. When the appropriate conditions occur with regard to salt content and temperature, V. parahaemolyticus thrives.
Back to Top
How is V. parahaemolyticus infection prevented?
Most infections caused by V. parahaemolyticus in the United States can be prevented by thoroughly cooking seafood, especially oysters. Wound infections can be prevented by avoiding exposure of open wounds to warm seawater. When an outbreak is traced to an oyster bed, health officials recommend closing the oyster bed until conditions are less favorable for V. parahaemolyticus.
Timely, voluntary reporting of V. parahaemolyticus infections to state health departments and to regional offices of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) will help collaborative efforts to improve investigation of these infections. Regional FDA specialists with expert knowledge about shellfish assist state officials with tracebacks of shellfish. When notified rapidly about cases, officials can sample harvest waters to discover possible sources of infection and may close oyster beds. Ongoing research may help us to predict environmental or other factors that increase the chance that oysters carry Vibrios.
Back to Top
How can I learn more about Vibrio parahaemolyticus?
You can discuss medical concerns with your doctor or other health care provider. Your local health department can provide information about this and other public health problems. Information about problems associated with raw seafood consumption can be obtained from the FDA’s Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (telephone 1-800-332-4010). At this number recorded information is available on many subjects including seafood consumption and handling. A public affairs specialist is available 12:00 p.m.-4:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time. Seafood safety information is also available on the world wide web at http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov and http://seafood.ucdavis.edu. There is more information about other Vibrio infections, such as Vibrio vulnificus.
Back to Top
* Links to non-Federal organizations found at this site are provided solely as a service to our users. These links do not constitute an endorsement of these organizations or their programs by CDC or the Federal Government, and none should be inferred. CDC is not responsible for the content of the individual organization Web pages found
Back to Top
What type of illness is caused by V. parahaemolyticus?
When ingested, V. parahaemolyticus causes watery diarrhea often with abdominal cramping, nausea, vomiting, fever and chills. Usually these symptoms occur within 24 hours of ingestion. Illness is usually self-limited and lasts 3 days. Severe disease is rare and occurs more commonly in persons with weakened immune systems. V. parahaemolyticus can also cause an infection of the skin when an open wound is exposed to warm seawater.
Back to Top
How does infection with V. parahaemolyticus occur?
Most people become infected by eating raw or undercooked shellfish, particularly oysters. Less commonly, this organism can cause an infection in the skin when an open wound is exposed to warm seawater.
Back to Top
How common is infection with V. parahaemolyticus?
An estimated 4500 cases of V. parahaemolyticus infection occur each year in the United States. However, the number of cases reported to CDC is much lower because surveillance is complicated by underreporting. Laboratories rarely use the selective medium that is necessary to identify this organism, and it is likely that many cases are undetected. To improve our ability to monitor trends, infections caused by V. parahaemolyticus and other Vibrio species became nationally notifiable in 2007. State health departments report cases to CDC, and these reports are summarized annually.
Back to Top
How is V. parahaemolyticus infection diagnosed?
Vibrio organisms can be isolated from cultures of stool, wound, or blood. For isolation from stool, use of a selective medium that has thiosulfate, citrate, bile salts, and sucrose (TCBS agar) is recommended. If there is clinical suspicion for infection with this organism, the microbiology laboratory should be notified so that they will perform cultures using this medium. A physician should suspect V. parahaemolyticus infection if a patient has watery diarrhea and has eaten raw or undercooked seafood, especially oysters, or when a wound infection occurs after exposure to seawater.
Back to Top
How is V. parahaemolyticus treated?
Treatment is not necessary in most cases of V. parahaemolyticus infection. There is no evidence that antibiotic treatment decreases the severity or the length of the illness. Patients should drink plenty of liquids to replace fluids lost through diarrhea. In severe or prolonged illnesses, antibiotics such as tetracycline or ciprofloxicin can be used. The choice of antibiotics should be based on antimicrobial susceptibilities of the organism.
Back to Top
How do oysters get contaminated with V. parahaemolyticus?
Vibrio is a naturally occurring organism commonly found in waters where oysters are cultivated. When the appropriate conditions occur with regard to salt content and temperature, V. parahaemolyticus thrives.
Back to Top
How is V. parahaemolyticus infection prevented?
Most infections caused by V. parahaemolyticus in the United States can be prevented by thoroughly cooking seafood, especially oysters. Wound infections can be prevented by avoiding exposure of open wounds to warm seawater. When an outbreak is traced to an oyster bed, health officials recommend closing the oyster bed until conditions are less favorable for V. parahaemolyticus.
Timely, voluntary reporting of V. parahaemolyticus infections to state health departments and to regional offices of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) will help collaborative efforts to improve investigation of these infections. Regional FDA specialists with expert knowledge about shellfish assist state officials with tracebacks of shellfish. When notified rapidly about cases, officials can sample harvest waters to discover possible sources of infection and may close oyster beds. Ongoing research may help us to predict environmental or other factors that increase the chance that oysters carry Vibrios.
Back to Top
How can I learn more about Vibrio parahaemolyticus?
You can discuss medical concerns with your doctor or other health care provider. Your local health department can provide information about this and other public health problems. Information about problems associated with raw seafood consumption can be obtained from the FDA’s Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (telephone 1-800-332-4010). At this number recorded information is available on many subjects including seafood consumption and handling. A public affairs specialist is available 12:00 p.m.-4:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time. Seafood safety information is also available on the world wide web at http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov and http://seafood.ucdavis.edu. There is more information about other Vibrio infections, such as Vibrio vulnificus.
Back to Top
* Links to non-Federal organizations found at this site are provided solely as a service to our users. These links do not constitute an endorsement of these organizations or their programs by CDC or the Federal Government, and none should be inferred. CDC is not responsible for the content of the individual organization Web pages found
What Is Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic bacteria that lives in soil, water, and even in environments like hot tubs. For most healthy people, this bacteria seldom poses a problem. Occasionally people will develop conditions like hot tub rash, and swimmer’s ear, which may be due to contact with these germs. These conditions can sometimes resolve without treatment, or with minimal treatment, like antibiotic drops for swimmer’s ear.
Unfortunately, Pseudomonas aeruginosa is much more dangerous to certain populations, including those who have weak immune systems, the elderly, and those who have been hospitalized for long periods of time. People with cystic fibrosis and with full-blown AIDs frequently die from infections created by the bacteria. Those who have undergone chemotherapy, have had transplants, or have any of a variety of immunosuppressed conditions are far more at risk for developing bacterial infections due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and because this bacteria is relatively resistant to most antibacterial medications, infection can be deadly, particularly when it becomes infection of the lungs or bloodstream.
Doctors and medical researchers often refer to Pseudomonas aeruginosa as a blue-green pus bacteria, and/or a gram-negative bacteria. The first reference is to the pus, which can show blue to green colors, and the second refers to the Gram method for staining bacteria to determine what type it is. When samples of gram-negative bacteria, particularly those that are considered aerobic, are stained, they resist color and typically show up in slides under the microscope as a pink color. Aerobic bacteria refers to bacteria that needs oxygen to survive, which Pseudomonas aeruginosa has in ample amounts, particularly in hospital settings.
As mentioned, though Pseudomonas aeruginosa tends to live all around us, it is most dangerous to those who are in weakened physical states or have immunodeficiencies. Despite hospital cleaning and safety the bacteria may aggressively survive in basic hospital equipment, like masks used to give oxygen, breathing apparatus, or catheters for urine. Typically most common infections induced by the bacteria are of the bladder, lungs or bloodstream. Inability to produce normal immune reactions to the presence of the bacteria can mean this germ can easily result in extremely grave health conditions.
Treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa is usually through intravenous multiple antibiotic combinations, and it unfortunately does not always work. However, there is hope in this field, which may ultimately put an end to the suffering this bacteria may cause. Preliminary studies on a Pseudomonas aeruginosa vaccine are underway, and although these studies have not yet concluded that a currently developed vaccine is completely effective, early results do show that the vaccine can potentially reduce number of infections, as of mid-2007. These early results do not show complete protection from infection, but they are promising as to a reduction, when compared with a placebo group. Such a vaccine could indeed be a boon to the medical community and all those who are at particular risk for life-threatening infections from this bacteria
Unfortunately, Pseudomonas aeruginosa is much more dangerous to certain populations, including those who have weak immune systems, the elderly, and those who have been hospitalized for long periods of time. People with cystic fibrosis and with full-blown AIDs frequently die from infections created by the bacteria. Those who have undergone chemotherapy, have had transplants, or have any of a variety of immunosuppressed conditions are far more at risk for developing bacterial infections due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and because this bacteria is relatively resistant to most antibacterial medications, infection can be deadly, particularly when it becomes infection of the lungs or bloodstream.
Doctors and medical researchers often refer to Pseudomonas aeruginosa as a blue-green pus bacteria, and/or a gram-negative bacteria. The first reference is to the pus, which can show blue to green colors, and the second refers to the Gram method for staining bacteria to determine what type it is. When samples of gram-negative bacteria, particularly those that are considered aerobic, are stained, they resist color and typically show up in slides under the microscope as a pink color. Aerobic bacteria refers to bacteria that needs oxygen to survive, which Pseudomonas aeruginosa has in ample amounts, particularly in hospital settings.
As mentioned, though Pseudomonas aeruginosa tends to live all around us, it is most dangerous to those who are in weakened physical states or have immunodeficiencies. Despite hospital cleaning and safety the bacteria may aggressively survive in basic hospital equipment, like masks used to give oxygen, breathing apparatus, or catheters for urine. Typically most common infections induced by the bacteria are of the bladder, lungs or bloodstream. Inability to produce normal immune reactions to the presence of the bacteria can mean this germ can easily result in extremely grave health conditions.
Treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa is usually through intravenous multiple antibiotic combinations, and it unfortunately does not always work. However, there is hope in this field, which may ultimately put an end to the suffering this bacteria may cause. Preliminary studies on a Pseudomonas aeruginosa vaccine are underway, and although these studies have not yet concluded that a currently developed vaccine is completely effective, early results do show that the vaccine can potentially reduce number of infections, as of mid-2007. These early results do not show complete protection from infection, but they are promising as to a reduction, when compared with a placebo group. Such a vaccine could indeed be a boon to the medical community and all those who are at particular risk for life-threatening infections from this bacteria
Senin, 11 Agustus 2008
The serotonin syndrome.
Department of Psychiatry, UCLA-Neuropsychiatric Institute, Los Angeles.
OBJECTIVE AND METHOD: A review of the literature on the serotonin syndrome in animals and human beings was conducted, and 12 reports of 38 cases in human patients were then analyzed to determine the most frequently reported clinical features and drug interactions, as well as the incidence, treatment, and outcome of this syndrome. FINDINGS: The serotonin syndrome is most commonly the result of the interaction between serotonergic agents and monoamine oxidase inhibitors. The most frequent clinical features are changes in mental status, restlessness, myoclonus, hyperreflexia, diaphoresis, shivering, and tremor. The presumed pathophysiological mechanism involves brainstem and spinal cord activation of the 1A form of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) receptor. The incidence of the syndrome is not known. Both sexes have been affected, and patients' ages have ranged from 20 to 68 years. Discontinuation of the suspected serotonergic agent and institution of supportive measures are the primary treatment, although 5-HT receptor antagonists may also play a role. Once treatment is instituted, the syndrome typically resolves within 24 hours, but confusion can last for days, and death has been reported. CONCLUSIONS: The serotonin syndrome is a toxic condition requiring heightened clinical awareness for prevention, recognition, and prompt treatment. Further work is needed to establish the diagnostic criteria, incidence, and predisposing factors, to identify the role of 5-HT antagonists in treatment, and to differentiate the syndrome from neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
PMID: 2035713 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
OBJECTIVE AND METHOD: A review of the literature on the serotonin syndrome in animals and human beings was conducted, and 12 reports of 38 cases in human patients were then analyzed to determine the most frequently reported clinical features and drug interactions, as well as the incidence, treatment, and outcome of this syndrome. FINDINGS: The serotonin syndrome is most commonly the result of the interaction between serotonergic agents and monoamine oxidase inhibitors. The most frequent clinical features are changes in mental status, restlessness, myoclonus, hyperreflexia, diaphoresis, shivering, and tremor. The presumed pathophysiological mechanism involves brainstem and spinal cord activation of the 1A form of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) receptor. The incidence of the syndrome is not known. Both sexes have been affected, and patients' ages have ranged from 20 to 68 years. Discontinuation of the suspected serotonergic agent and institution of supportive measures are the primary treatment, although 5-HT receptor antagonists may also play a role. Once treatment is instituted, the syndrome typically resolves within 24 hours, but confusion can last for days, and death has been reported. CONCLUSIONS: The serotonin syndrome is a toxic condition requiring heightened clinical awareness for prevention, recognition, and prompt treatment. Further work is needed to establish the diagnostic criteria, incidence, and predisposing factors, to identify the role of 5-HT antagonists in treatment, and to differentiate the syndrome from neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
PMID: 2035713 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
International Union of Pharmacology classification of receptors for 5-hydroxytryptamine (Serotonin).
Sandoz Pharma Limited, Basel, Switzerland.
It is evident that in the last decade or so, a vast amount of new information has become available concerning the various 5-HT receptor types and their characteristics. This derives from two main research approaches, operational pharmacology, using selective ligands (both agonists and antagonists), and, more recently, molecular biology. Although the scientific community continues to deliberate about the hierarchy of criteria for neurotransmitter receptor characterisation, there seems good agreement between the two approaches regarding 5-HT receptor classification. In addition, the information regarding transduction mechanisms and second messengers is also entirely consistent. Thus, on the basis of these essential criteria for receptor characterisation and classification, there are at least three main groups or classes of 5-HT receptor: 5-HT1, 5-HT2, and 5-HT3. Each group is not only operationally but also structurally distinct, with each receptor group having its own distinct transducing system. The more recently identified 5-HT4 receptor almost undoubtedly represents a fourth 5-HT receptor class on the basis of operational and transductional data, but this will only be definitively shown when the cDNA for the receptor has been cloned and the amino acid sequence of the protein is known. Although those 5-HT receptors that have been fully characterised and classified to date (and, hence, named with confidence) would seem to mediate the majority of the actions of 5-HT throughout the mammalian body, not all receptors for 5-HT are fully encompassed within our scheme of classification. These apparent anomalies must be recognised and need further study. They may or may not represent new groups of 5-HT receptor or subtypes of already known groups of 5-HT receptor. Even though the cDNAs for the 5-ht1E, 5-ht1F, 5-ht5, 5-ht6, and 5-ht7 receptors have been cloned and their amino acid sequence defined, more data are necessary concerning their operational and transductional characteristics before one can be confident of the suitability of their appellations. Therefore, it is important to rationalise in concert all of the available data from studies involving both operational approaches of the classical pharmacological type and those from molecular and cellular biology.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
PMID: 7938165 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
It is evident that in the last decade or so, a vast amount of new information has become available concerning the various 5-HT receptor types and their characteristics. This derives from two main research approaches, operational pharmacology, using selective ligands (both agonists and antagonists), and, more recently, molecular biology. Although the scientific community continues to deliberate about the hierarchy of criteria for neurotransmitter receptor characterisation, there seems good agreement between the two approaches regarding 5-HT receptor classification. In addition, the information regarding transduction mechanisms and second messengers is also entirely consistent. Thus, on the basis of these essential criteria for receptor characterisation and classification, there are at least three main groups or classes of 5-HT receptor: 5-HT1, 5-HT2, and 5-HT3. Each group is not only operationally but also structurally distinct, with each receptor group having its own distinct transducing system. The more recently identified 5-HT4 receptor almost undoubtedly represents a fourth 5-HT receptor class on the basis of operational and transductional data, but this will only be definitively shown when the cDNA for the receptor has been cloned and the amino acid sequence of the protein is known. Although those 5-HT receptors that have been fully characterised and classified to date (and, hence, named with confidence) would seem to mediate the majority of the actions of 5-HT throughout the mammalian body, not all receptors for 5-HT are fully encompassed within our scheme of classification. These apparent anomalies must be recognised and need further study. They may or may not represent new groups of 5-HT receptor or subtypes of already known groups of 5-HT receptor. Even though the cDNAs for the 5-ht1E, 5-ht1F, 5-ht5, 5-ht6, and 5-ht7 receptors have been cloned and their amino acid sequence defined, more data are necessary concerning their operational and transductional characteristics before one can be confident of the suitability of their appellations. Therefore, it is important to rationalise in concert all of the available data from studies involving both operational approaches of the classical pharmacological type and those from molecular and cellular biology.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
PMID: 7938165 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Jumat, 01 Agustus 2008
:: Angiogenesis in cancer
How angiogenesis complicates cancer
Angiogenesis performs a critical role in the development of cancer. Solid tumors smaller than 1 to 2 cubic millimeters are not vascularized. To spread, they need to be supplied by blood vessels that bring oxygen and nutrients and remove metabolic wastes.
Beyond the critical volume of 2 cubic millimeters, oxygen and nutrients have difficulty diffusing to the cells in the center of the tumor, causing a state of cellular hypoxia that marks the onset of tumoral angiogenesis.
New blood vessel development is an important process in tumor progression. It favors the transition from hyperplasia to neoplasia i.e. the passage from a state of cellular multiplication to a state of uncontrolled proliferation characteristic of tumor cells.
Neovascularization also influences the dissemination of cancer cells throughout the entire body eventually leading to metastasis formation.The vascularization level of a solid tumor is thought to be an excellent indicator of its metastatic potential.
The molecular factors involved in the stimulation of blood vessel growth are described in detail in The process of angiogenesis.
Shortcomings of standard therapies
Standard therapies to combat cancer are usually aimed at interfering with the cellular replication process which is accelerated in tumors. Despite the efforts made since 1971 to fight cancer -- the year the United States declared war on the disease -- new cases of most cancers have increased significantly. Ninety percent of all cancers are solid tumors and thus depend on angiogenesis to support their growth.
Resistance to treatment is a major issue in oncology. In hormone-dependent cancer for instance, after standard anti-hormonal therapy, it is common to see a recurrence of cancer. This occurs when a malignant cell is transformed a second time, thus making its replication independent of hormones. The same phenomenon takes place with cancers treated with chemotherapy. Often a transformed cell exposed to a powerful chemical agent goes through a mutation, giving it a selective advantage for growth, such as the production of a growth factor or resistance to chemotherapeutic agents.
It has also been shown that the resection of a primary tumor is often accompanied by metastases caused by a systemic disturbance of the angiogenic balance of the body. All these standard therapies could profit from a concomitant treatment that would restrict latent tumors in a prevascular phase.
Antiangiogenesis as a strategy against cancer
As early as the 1970s, Dr. Judah Folkman of the Harvard Medical School suggested inhibiting new blood vessel formation as a way to fight cancer.
The malignant tissue would be deprived of its oxygen and nutrient supply, as well as be unable to eliminate metabolic wastes. This in turn would inhibit tumor progression and metastatic progression that accompanies most advanced cancers. These are the main steps of the angiogenic process that can be interrupted:
Inhibiting endogenous angiogenic factors, such as bFGF (basic Fibroblast Growth Factor) and VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor)
Inhibiting degradative enzymes (Matrix Metalloproteinases) responsible for the degradation of the basement membrane of blood vessels
Inhibiting endothelial cell proliferation
Inhibiting endothelial cell migration
Inhibiting the activation and differentiation of endothelial cells
However, the challenge is to develop an antiangiogenic factor that does not affect the existing vasculature.
Neovastat is an inhibitor of angiogenesis
A number of studies have shown Neovastat to have antiangiogenic properties. The mechanisms of action include:
Inhibiting degradative Matrix Metalloproteinases,
Blocking receptor sites for the angiogenic growth factor VEGF, which prevents endothelial cells from proliferating, migrating, and organizing to form new blood vessels in vitro.
As well, clinical and pre-clinical studies show Neovastat can be used alone or in combination with other therapies. Clinical experience with 540 patients, some of whom have been administered the drug for almost four years, have confirmed Neovastat’s excellent safety and tolerability profile in monotherapy and in concomitant chemotherapy and radiotherapy.
(Angio World)
Angiogenesis performs a critical role in the development of cancer. Solid tumors smaller than 1 to 2 cubic millimeters are not vascularized. To spread, they need to be supplied by blood vessels that bring oxygen and nutrients and remove metabolic wastes.
Beyond the critical volume of 2 cubic millimeters, oxygen and nutrients have difficulty diffusing to the cells in the center of the tumor, causing a state of cellular hypoxia that marks the onset of tumoral angiogenesis.
New blood vessel development is an important process in tumor progression. It favors the transition from hyperplasia to neoplasia i.e. the passage from a state of cellular multiplication to a state of uncontrolled proliferation characteristic of tumor cells.
Neovascularization also influences the dissemination of cancer cells throughout the entire body eventually leading to metastasis formation.The vascularization level of a solid tumor is thought to be an excellent indicator of its metastatic potential.
The molecular factors involved in the stimulation of blood vessel growth are described in detail in The process of angiogenesis.
Shortcomings of standard therapies
Standard therapies to combat cancer are usually aimed at interfering with the cellular replication process which is accelerated in tumors. Despite the efforts made since 1971 to fight cancer -- the year the United States declared war on the disease -- new cases of most cancers have increased significantly. Ninety percent of all cancers are solid tumors and thus depend on angiogenesis to support their growth.
Resistance to treatment is a major issue in oncology. In hormone-dependent cancer for instance, after standard anti-hormonal therapy, it is common to see a recurrence of cancer. This occurs when a malignant cell is transformed a second time, thus making its replication independent of hormones. The same phenomenon takes place with cancers treated with chemotherapy. Often a transformed cell exposed to a powerful chemical agent goes through a mutation, giving it a selective advantage for growth, such as the production of a growth factor or resistance to chemotherapeutic agents.
It has also been shown that the resection of a primary tumor is often accompanied by metastases caused by a systemic disturbance of the angiogenic balance of the body. All these standard therapies could profit from a concomitant treatment that would restrict latent tumors in a prevascular phase.
Antiangiogenesis as a strategy against cancer
As early as the 1970s, Dr. Judah Folkman of the Harvard Medical School suggested inhibiting new blood vessel formation as a way to fight cancer.
The malignant tissue would be deprived of its oxygen and nutrient supply, as well as be unable to eliminate metabolic wastes. This in turn would inhibit tumor progression and metastatic progression that accompanies most advanced cancers. These are the main steps of the angiogenic process that can be interrupted:
Inhibiting endogenous angiogenic factors, such as bFGF (basic Fibroblast Growth Factor) and VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor)
Inhibiting degradative enzymes (Matrix Metalloproteinases) responsible for the degradation of the basement membrane of blood vessels
Inhibiting endothelial cell proliferation
Inhibiting endothelial cell migration
Inhibiting the activation and differentiation of endothelial cells
However, the challenge is to develop an antiangiogenic factor that does not affect the existing vasculature.
Neovastat is an inhibitor of angiogenesis
A number of studies have shown Neovastat to have antiangiogenic properties. The mechanisms of action include:
Inhibiting degradative Matrix Metalloproteinases,
Blocking receptor sites for the angiogenic growth factor VEGF, which prevents endothelial cells from proliferating, migrating, and organizing to form new blood vessels in vitro.
As well, clinical and pre-clinical studies show Neovastat can be used alone or in combination with other therapies. Clinical experience with 540 patients, some of whom have been administered the drug for almost four years, have confirmed Neovastat’s excellent safety and tolerability profile in monotherapy and in concomitant chemotherapy and radiotherapy.
(Angio World)
Process of Angiogenesis
Physiological and pathological angiogenesis
Almost all tissues develop a vascular network that provides cells with nutrients and oxygen and enables them to eliminate metabolic wastes. Once formed, the vascular network is a stable system that regenerates slowly.
In physiological conditions, angiogenesis occurs primarily in embryo development, during wound healing and in response to ovulation.
However, pathological angiogenesis, or the abnormal rapid proliferation of blood vessels, is implicated in over 20 diseases, including cancer, psoriasis and age-related macular degeneration.
The angiogenic sequence
The angiogenic process, as currently understood, can be summarized as follows:
A cell activated by a lack of oxygen releases angiogenic molecules that attract inflammatory and endothelial cells and promote their proliferation.
During their migration, inflammatory cells also secrete molecules that intensify the angiogenic stimuli.
The endothelial cells that form the blood vessels respond to the angiogenic call by differentiating and by secreting matrix metalloproteases (MMP), which digest the blood-vessel walls to enable them to escape and migrate toward the site of the angiogenic stimuli.
Several protein fragments produced by the digestion of the blood-vessel walls intensify the proliferative and migratory activity of endothelial cells, which then form a capillary tube by altering the arrangement of their adherence-membrane proteins.
Finally, through the process of anastomosis, the capillaries emanating from the arterioles and the venules will join, thus resulting in a continuous blood flow.
The normal regulation of angiogenesis is governed by a fine balance between factors that induce the formation of blood vessels and those that halt or inhibit the process. When this balance is destroyed, it usually results in pathological angiogenesis which causes increased blood-vessel formation in diseases that depend on angiogenesis.
More than 20 endogenous positive regulators of angiogenesis have been described, including growth factors, matrix metalloproteinases, cytokines, and integrins. Growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), transforming growth factors (TGF-beta), fibroblast growth factors (FGF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), angiogenin, can induce the division of cultured endothelial cells thus indicating a direct action on these cells.
However, other factors have virtually no effect on the division of cultured endothelial cells or, in the case of TGF-beta and TNF-alpha, paradoxically inhibit their growth indicating that their angiogenic action is indirect.
Almost all tissues develop a vascular network that provides cells with nutrients and oxygen and enables them to eliminate metabolic wastes. Once formed, the vascular network is a stable system that regenerates slowly.
In physiological conditions, angiogenesis occurs primarily in embryo development, during wound healing and in response to ovulation.
However, pathological angiogenesis, or the abnormal rapid proliferation of blood vessels, is implicated in over 20 diseases, including cancer, psoriasis and age-related macular degeneration.
The angiogenic sequence
The angiogenic process, as currently understood, can be summarized as follows:
A cell activated by a lack of oxygen releases angiogenic molecules that attract inflammatory and endothelial cells and promote their proliferation.
During their migration, inflammatory cells also secrete molecules that intensify the angiogenic stimuli.
The endothelial cells that form the blood vessels respond to the angiogenic call by differentiating and by secreting matrix metalloproteases (MMP), which digest the blood-vessel walls to enable them to escape and migrate toward the site of the angiogenic stimuli.
Several protein fragments produced by the digestion of the blood-vessel walls intensify the proliferative and migratory activity of endothelial cells, which then form a capillary tube by altering the arrangement of their adherence-membrane proteins.
Finally, through the process of anastomosis, the capillaries emanating from the arterioles and the venules will join, thus resulting in a continuous blood flow.
The normal regulation of angiogenesis is governed by a fine balance between factors that induce the formation of blood vessels and those that halt or inhibit the process. When this balance is destroyed, it usually results in pathological angiogenesis which causes increased blood-vessel formation in diseases that depend on angiogenesis.
More than 20 endogenous positive regulators of angiogenesis have been described, including growth factors, matrix metalloproteinases, cytokines, and integrins. Growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), transforming growth factors (TGF-beta), fibroblast growth factors (FGF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), angiogenin, can induce the division of cultured endothelial cells thus indicating a direct action on these cells.
However, other factors have virtually no effect on the division of cultured endothelial cells or, in the case of TGF-beta and TNF-alpha, paradoxically inhibit their growth indicating that their angiogenic action is indirect.
Kamis, 31 Juli 2008
What Is Cancer?
Defining Cancer
Cancer is a term used for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control and are able to invade other tissues. Cancer cells can spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems.
Cancer is not just one disease but many diseases. There are more than 100 different types of cancer. Most cancers are named for the organ or type of cell in which they start - for example, cancer that begins in the colon is called colon cancer; cancer that begins in basal cells of the skin is called basal cell carcinoma.
Cancer types can be grouped into broader categories. The main categories of cancer include:
Carcinoma - cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs.
Sarcoma - cancer that begins in bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or supportive tissue.
Leukemia - cancer that starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow and causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced and enter the blood.
Lymphoma and myeloma - cancers that begin in the cells of the immune system.
Central nervous system cancers - cancers that begin in the tissues of the brain and spinal cord.
(For definitions of other cancer-related terms, see NCI's Dictionary of Cancer Terms.)
Origins of Cancer
All cancers begin in cells, the body's basic unit of life. To understand cancer, it's helpful to know what happens when normal cells become cancer cells.
The body is made up of many types of cells. These cells grow and divide in a controlled way to produce more cells as they are needed to keep the body healthy. When cells become old or damaged, they die and are replaced with new cells.
However, sometimes this orderly process goes wrong. The genetic material (DNA) of a cell can become damaged or changed, producing mutations that affect normal cell growth and division. When this happens, cells do not die when they should and new cells form when the body does not need them. The extra cells may form a mass of tissue called a tumor.
(Image from Understanding Cancer Series: Cancer.)
Not all tumors are cancerous; tumors can be benign or malignant.
Benign tumors aren't cancerous. They can often be removed, and, in most cases, they do not come back. Cells in benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body.
Malignant tumors are cancerous. Cells in these tumors can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body. The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another is called metastasis.
Some cancers do not form tumors. For example, leukemia is a cancer of the bone marrow and blood.
Cancer Statistics
A new report from the nation's leading cancer organizations shows cancer death rates decreased on average 2.1 percent per year from 2002 through 2004, nearly twice the annual decrease of 1.1 percent per year from 1993 through 2002. (Read more about the Annual Report.)
Estimated new cases and deaths from cancer in the United States in 2008:
New cases: 1,437,180 (does not include nonmelanoma skin cancers)
Deaths: 565,650
NCI's Cancer Stat Fact Sheets provide frequently requested cancer statistics for a number of cancer types.
Additional Information
Find a type of cancer:
A to Z List of Cancers
Cancers by Body Location/System
Cancers that are diagnosed with the greatest frequency in the United States are listed below. (Read more about Common Cancer Types.)
Bladder Cancer Melanoma
Breast Cancer Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
Colon and Rectal Cancer Pancreatic Cancer
Endometrial Cancer Prostate Cancer
Kidney (Renal Cell) Cancer Skin Cancer (Nonmelanoma)
Leukemia Thyroid Cancer
Lung Cancer
More cancer topics:
Cancer Prevention
Cancer Genetics
Cancer Causes and Risk Factors
Screening and Testing to Detect Cancer
Cancer Treatment
Coping with Cancer
Cancer Statistics
Clinical Trials
Cancer Publications
The risk of developing many types of cancer can be reduced by practicing healthy lifestyle habits, such as eating a healthy diet, getting regular exercise, and not smoking. Also, the sooner a cancer is found and treatment begins, the better the chances are that the treatment will be successful.
Contact Us for Help
NCI cancer information specialists can answer your questions about cancer and help you with quitting smoking. They can also help you with using this Web site and can tell you about NCI's printed and electronic materials. Contact us.
(National Cancer)
Cancer is a term used for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control and are able to invade other tissues. Cancer cells can spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems.
Cancer is not just one disease but many diseases. There are more than 100 different types of cancer. Most cancers are named for the organ or type of cell in which they start - for example, cancer that begins in the colon is called colon cancer; cancer that begins in basal cells of the skin is called basal cell carcinoma.
Cancer types can be grouped into broader categories. The main categories of cancer include:
Carcinoma - cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs.
Sarcoma - cancer that begins in bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or supportive tissue.
Leukemia - cancer that starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow and causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced and enter the blood.
Lymphoma and myeloma - cancers that begin in the cells of the immune system.
Central nervous system cancers - cancers that begin in the tissues of the brain and spinal cord.
(For definitions of other cancer-related terms, see NCI's Dictionary of Cancer Terms.)
Origins of Cancer
All cancers begin in cells, the body's basic unit of life. To understand cancer, it's helpful to know what happens when normal cells become cancer cells.
The body is made up of many types of cells. These cells grow and divide in a controlled way to produce more cells as they are needed to keep the body healthy. When cells become old or damaged, they die and are replaced with new cells.
However, sometimes this orderly process goes wrong. The genetic material (DNA) of a cell can become damaged or changed, producing mutations that affect normal cell growth and division. When this happens, cells do not die when they should and new cells form when the body does not need them. The extra cells may form a mass of tissue called a tumor.
(Image from Understanding Cancer Series: Cancer.)
Not all tumors are cancerous; tumors can be benign or malignant.
Benign tumors aren't cancerous. They can often be removed, and, in most cases, they do not come back. Cells in benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body.
Malignant tumors are cancerous. Cells in these tumors can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body. The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another is called metastasis.
Some cancers do not form tumors. For example, leukemia is a cancer of the bone marrow and blood.
Cancer Statistics
A new report from the nation's leading cancer organizations shows cancer death rates decreased on average 2.1 percent per year from 2002 through 2004, nearly twice the annual decrease of 1.1 percent per year from 1993 through 2002. (Read more about the Annual Report.)
Estimated new cases and deaths from cancer in the United States in 2008:
New cases: 1,437,180 (does not include nonmelanoma skin cancers)
Deaths: 565,650
NCI's Cancer Stat Fact Sheets provide frequently requested cancer statistics for a number of cancer types.
Additional Information
Find a type of cancer:
A to Z List of Cancers
Cancers by Body Location/System
Cancers that are diagnosed with the greatest frequency in the United States are listed below. (Read more about Common Cancer Types.)
Bladder Cancer Melanoma
Breast Cancer Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
Colon and Rectal Cancer Pancreatic Cancer
Endometrial Cancer Prostate Cancer
Kidney (Renal Cell) Cancer Skin Cancer (Nonmelanoma)
Leukemia Thyroid Cancer
Lung Cancer
More cancer topics:
Cancer Prevention
Cancer Genetics
Cancer Causes and Risk Factors
Screening and Testing to Detect Cancer
Cancer Treatment
Coping with Cancer
Cancer Statistics
Clinical Trials
Cancer Publications
The risk of developing many types of cancer can be reduced by practicing healthy lifestyle habits, such as eating a healthy diet, getting regular exercise, and not smoking. Also, the sooner a cancer is found and treatment begins, the better the chances are that the treatment will be successful.
Contact Us for Help
NCI cancer information specialists can answer your questions about cancer and help you with quitting smoking. They can also help you with using this Web site and can tell you about NCI's printed and electronic materials. Contact us.
(National Cancer)
Eat Right for Your Type
What It Is
The Eat Right for Your Type diet encourages people to eat certain foods and avoid others based on their blood type -- A, B, AB, or O.
Peter J. D'Adamo, ND, the author of Eat Right for Your Type: The Individualized Diet Solution to Staying Healthy, Living Longer & Achieving Your Ideal Weight, believes blood types affect the digestive system and that some foods good for people of one type are "dangerous" for another.
The Latest Diets
New diets and weight loss tricks pop up every month. Get the facts on how the new diets work and what's right.
Atkins
Best Life Diet
Biggest Loser
Cabbage Soup
Hallelujah Diet
Jenny Craig
NutriSystem
Ornish
South Beach
3 Day Diet
Weight Watchers
Zone
All Diets A-Z
Related to diet and weight loss Alli, apple cider vinegar, low carb diet, high protien diet, weight loss, metabolism, Mediterranean diet, diet pills, trans fat, BMI calculator, detox diet, diabetes diet, Body for Life
© 2008 WebMD, LLC. All rights reserved.
It goes further than that for D'Adamo, a naturopathic doctor, who believes that your blood type also determines your susceptibility to certain illnesses and how you should exercise.
Critics cite a lack of published evidence backing D'Adamo's blood type-based diet plan. "I know of no plausible rationale behind the diet," says John Foreyt, PhD, a researcher at the Baylor College of Medicine in Houston.
This diet may suit those enthusiastic about a plan that doesn't involve tracking calories or fat grams, while others may find it difficult to stay within the diet's confines, a challenge made greater if more than one person in a household follows the diet -- and has a different blood type.
What You Can Eat
What you can eat -- and how you exercise -- on this plan depends on who you are.
If you're blood type O ("for old," as in humanity's oldest blood line) your digestive tract retains the memory of ancient times, says D'Adamo, so you're metabolism will benefit from lean meats, poultry, and fish. You're advised to restrict grains, breads, legumes, and beans and to enjoy vigorous exercise.
Type A ("for agrarian") flourishes on vegetarian diets, "the inheritance of their more settled and less warlike farmer ancestors," says D'Adamo. The type A diet contains soy proteins, grains, and organic vegetables and encourages gentle exercise.
The nomadic blood type B has a tolerant digestive system and can enjoy low-fat dairy, meat, and produce but, among other things, should avoid wheat, corn, and lentils, D'Adamo says. If you're type B, it's recommended you exercise moderately.
The "modern" blood type AB has a sensitive digestive tract and should avoid chicken, beef, and pork but enjoy seafood, tofu, dairy, and most produce. The fitness regimen for ABs is calming exercises
The Eat Right for Your Type diet encourages people to eat certain foods and avoid others based on their blood type -- A, B, AB, or O.
Peter J. D'Adamo, ND, the author of Eat Right for Your Type: The Individualized Diet Solution to Staying Healthy, Living Longer & Achieving Your Ideal Weight, believes blood types affect the digestive system and that some foods good for people of one type are "dangerous" for another.
The Latest Diets
New diets and weight loss tricks pop up every month. Get the facts on how the new diets work and what's right.
Atkins
Best Life Diet
Biggest Loser
Cabbage Soup
Hallelujah Diet
Jenny Craig
NutriSystem
Ornish
South Beach
3 Day Diet
Weight Watchers
Zone
All Diets A-Z
Related to diet and weight loss Alli, apple cider vinegar, low carb diet, high protien diet, weight loss, metabolism, Mediterranean diet, diet pills, trans fat, BMI calculator, detox diet, diabetes diet, Body for Life
© 2008 WebMD, LLC. All rights reserved.
It goes further than that for D'Adamo, a naturopathic doctor, who believes that your blood type also determines your susceptibility to certain illnesses and how you should exercise.
Critics cite a lack of published evidence backing D'Adamo's blood type-based diet plan. "I know of no plausible rationale behind the diet," says John Foreyt, PhD, a researcher at the Baylor College of Medicine in Houston.
This diet may suit those enthusiastic about a plan that doesn't involve tracking calories or fat grams, while others may find it difficult to stay within the diet's confines, a challenge made greater if more than one person in a household follows the diet -- and has a different blood type.
What You Can Eat
What you can eat -- and how you exercise -- on this plan depends on who you are.
If you're blood type O ("for old," as in humanity's oldest blood line) your digestive tract retains the memory of ancient times, says D'Adamo, so you're metabolism will benefit from lean meats, poultry, and fish. You're advised to restrict grains, breads, legumes, and beans and to enjoy vigorous exercise.
Type A ("for agrarian") flourishes on vegetarian diets, "the inheritance of their more settled and less warlike farmer ancestors," says D'Adamo. The type A diet contains soy proteins, grains, and organic vegetables and encourages gentle exercise.
The nomadic blood type B has a tolerant digestive system and can enjoy low-fat dairy, meat, and produce but, among other things, should avoid wheat, corn, and lentils, D'Adamo says. If you're type B, it's recommended you exercise moderately.
The "modern" blood type AB has a sensitive digestive tract and should avoid chicken, beef, and pork but enjoy seafood, tofu, dairy, and most produce. The fitness regimen for ABs is calming exercises
Dark Chocolate Is Healthy Chocolate
By Daniel J. DeNoon
WebMD Health NewsAug. 27, 2003 -- Got high blood pressure? Try a truffle. Worried about heart disease? Buy a bon-bon.
It's the best medical news in ages. Studies in two prestigious scientific journals say dark chocolate -- but not white chocolate or milk chocolate -- is good for you.
Romance and Chocolate
From the WebMD community
How often do you say, "I love you," to your partner? Everyday... several times a day... my husband likes to hear it and he doesn't let me go to bed until I've said it even if we're fighting. – Katelya
Read more of your thoughts on love
Favorite Screen Romances
Sweet History of Chocolate
Science of Attraction: Feelings or Pheromones?
Today's Love Lingo
Video: Getting the Most Out of Your Relationship
Related to modern love Science of Attraction: Feelings or Pheromones?, Relationship in Distress? Tips to De-stress, When Mars and Venus Collide, Is Modern Life Giving Your Heart a Beating?
© 2008 WebMD, LLC. All rights reserved.
Dark Chocolate Lowers Blood Pressure
Dark chocolate -- not white chocolate -- lowers high blood pressure, say Dirk Taubert, MD, PhD, and colleagues at the University of Cologne, Germany. Their report appears in the Aug. 27 issue of The Journal of the American Medical Association.
But that's no license to go on a chocolate binge. Eating more dark chocolate can help lower blood pressure -- if you've reached a certain age and have mild high blood pressure, say the researchers. But you have to balance the extra calories by eating less of other things.
Antioxidants in Dark Chocolate
Dark chocolate -- but not milk chocolate or dark chocolate eaten with milk -- is a potent antioxidant, report Mauro Serafini, PhD, of Italy's National Institute for Food and Nutrition Research in Rome, and colleagues. Their report appears in the Aug. 28 issue of Nature. Antioxidants gobble up free radicals, destructive molecules that are implicated in heart disease and other ailments.
"Our findings indicate that milk may interfere with the absorption of antioxidants from chocolate ... and may therefore negate the potential health benefits that can be derived from eating moderate amounts of dark chocolate."
Translation: Say "Dark, please," when ordering at the chocolate counter. Don't even think of washing it down with milk. And if health is your excuse for eating chocolate, remember the word "moderate" as you nibble.
The Studies
Taubert's team signed up six men and seven women aged 55-64. All had just been diagnosed with mild high blood pressure -- on average, systolic blood pressure (the top number) of 153 and diastolic blood pressure (the bottom number) of 84.
Every day for two weeks, they ate a 100-gram candy bar and were asked to balance its 480 calories by not eating other foods similar in nutrients and calories. Half the patients got dark chocolate and half got white chocolate.
Those who ate dark chocolate had a significant drop in blood pressure (by an average of 5 points for systolic and an average of 2 points for diastolic blood pressure). Those who ate white chocolate did not.
In the second study, Serafini's team signed up seven healthy women and five healthy men aged 25-35. On different days they each ate 100 grams of dark chocolate by itself, 100 grams of dark chocolate with a small glass of whole milk, or 200 grams of milk chocolate.
An hour later, those who ate dark chocolate alone had the most total antioxidants in their blood. And they had higher levels of epicatechin, a particularly healthy compound found in chocolate. The milk chocolate eaters had the lowest epicatechin levels of all.
( Web MD Health News )
WebMD Health NewsAug. 27, 2003 -- Got high blood pressure? Try a truffle. Worried about heart disease? Buy a bon-bon.
It's the best medical news in ages. Studies in two prestigious scientific journals say dark chocolate -- but not white chocolate or milk chocolate -- is good for you.
Romance and Chocolate
From the WebMD community
How often do you say, "I love you," to your partner? Everyday... several times a day... my husband likes to hear it and he doesn't let me go to bed until I've said it even if we're fighting. – Katelya
Read more of your thoughts on love
Favorite Screen Romances
Sweet History of Chocolate
Science of Attraction: Feelings or Pheromones?
Today's Love Lingo
Video: Getting the Most Out of Your Relationship
Related to modern love Science of Attraction: Feelings or Pheromones?, Relationship in Distress? Tips to De-stress, When Mars and Venus Collide, Is Modern Life Giving Your Heart a Beating?
© 2008 WebMD, LLC. All rights reserved.
Dark Chocolate Lowers Blood Pressure
Dark chocolate -- not white chocolate -- lowers high blood pressure, say Dirk Taubert, MD, PhD, and colleagues at the University of Cologne, Germany. Their report appears in the Aug. 27 issue of The Journal of the American Medical Association.
But that's no license to go on a chocolate binge. Eating more dark chocolate can help lower blood pressure -- if you've reached a certain age and have mild high blood pressure, say the researchers. But you have to balance the extra calories by eating less of other things.
Antioxidants in Dark Chocolate
Dark chocolate -- but not milk chocolate or dark chocolate eaten with milk -- is a potent antioxidant, report Mauro Serafini, PhD, of Italy's National Institute for Food and Nutrition Research in Rome, and colleagues. Their report appears in the Aug. 28 issue of Nature. Antioxidants gobble up free radicals, destructive molecules that are implicated in heart disease and other ailments.
"Our findings indicate that milk may interfere with the absorption of antioxidants from chocolate ... and may therefore negate the potential health benefits that can be derived from eating moderate amounts of dark chocolate."
Translation: Say "Dark, please," when ordering at the chocolate counter. Don't even think of washing it down with milk. And if health is your excuse for eating chocolate, remember the word "moderate" as you nibble.
The Studies
Taubert's team signed up six men and seven women aged 55-64. All had just been diagnosed with mild high blood pressure -- on average, systolic blood pressure (the top number) of 153 and diastolic blood pressure (the bottom number) of 84.
Every day for two weeks, they ate a 100-gram candy bar and were asked to balance its 480 calories by not eating other foods similar in nutrients and calories. Half the patients got dark chocolate and half got white chocolate.
Those who ate dark chocolate had a significant drop in blood pressure (by an average of 5 points for systolic and an average of 2 points for diastolic blood pressure). Those who ate white chocolate did not.
In the second study, Serafini's team signed up seven healthy women and five healthy men aged 25-35. On different days they each ate 100 grams of dark chocolate by itself, 100 grams of dark chocolate with a small glass of whole milk, or 200 grams of milk chocolate.
An hour later, those who ate dark chocolate alone had the most total antioxidants in their blood. And they had higher levels of epicatechin, a particularly healthy compound found in chocolate. The milk chocolate eaters had the lowest epicatechin levels of all.
( Web MD Health News )
Cholesterol
Knowing the facts about cholesterol can reduce your risk for a heart attack or stroke. But understanding what cholesterol is and how it affects your health are only the beginning.
To keep your cholesterol under control:
schedule a screening
eat foods low in cholesterol and saturated fat and free of trans fat
maintain a healthy weight
be physically active
follow your healthcare professional's advice
How well do you know cholesterol? Take this brief quiz to test your cholesterol IQ.
Knowing the facts about cholesterol can help you improve your heart health and reduce your risk of heart disease.
Be prepared with these tips for ordering low-saturated fat, low-cholesterol meals at any restaurant.
This content is reviewed regularly. Last updated 04/03/08.
To keep your cholesterol under control:
schedule a screening
eat foods low in cholesterol and saturated fat and free of trans fat
maintain a healthy weight
be physically active
follow your healthcare professional's advice
How well do you know cholesterol? Take this brief quiz to test your cholesterol IQ.
Knowing the facts about cholesterol can help you improve your heart health and reduce your risk of heart disease.
Be prepared with these tips for ordering low-saturated fat, low-cholesterol meals at any restaurant.
This content is reviewed regularly. Last updated 04/03/08.
Sabtu, 19 Juli 2008
Awas, Bom Hipertensi!
Hipertensi, darah tinggi memang bukan pembunuh sejati. Tetapi ia digolongkan sebagai The Silent Killer (pembunuh diam-diam). Gejala penyakit ini tidak nyata, tapi harus tetap diwaspadai dan diobati sedini mungkin, karena hipertensi yang kronis dan diabaikan dapat membawa malapetaka tiba-tiba, serangan jantung dan stroke.
Di Amerika, setiap tahun hampir separuh jumlah kematian disebabkan oleh faktor kelebihan konsumsi garam (natrium/sodium). Sumber utama natrium di sana adalah garam dapur. Namun di Indonesia, selain garam dapur dan ikan asin, sumber lain yang lebih potensial adalah monosodium glutamat (MSG/vetsin).
Kadar natrium dalam 1 gram garam dapur setara dengan kadar natrium yang terkandung dalam 3 gram
(1 sendok teh) MSG/vetsin. Satu gram garam dapur bisa membuat 1 mangkuk sup menjadi asin.
Sebaliknya 3 gram MSG tidak terasa asin, justru terasa gurih, sehingga secara tidak sadar dengan
mudah bisa kebablasan konsumsi MSG dan keracunan. Ini belum terhitung dari paparan MSG dalam berbagai makanan lainnya, yang membuat konsumen secara perlahan mulai toleran dan menimbukan
efek kecanduan. Sehingga bila MSG diberikan dalam jumlah sedikit, tidak akan terasa gurihnya. Jika kebiasaan ini berlangsung berkepanjangan (10–20 tahun), tidak mustahil rakyat Indonesia akan mengalami gejala hipertensi akibat keracunan MSG.
Kenapa Bisa Darah Tinggi?
Seseorang dinyatakan mengidap hipertensi bila tekanan sistoliknya mencapai di atas 140 mmHg dan tekanan diastolik di atas 90 mmHg. Tekanan sistolik adalah tekanan maksimum dimana jantung berkontraksi dan memompa darah ke luar, sedangkan tekanan diastolik adalah tekanan dimana jantung sedang mengalami relaksasi, menerima curahan darah dari pembuluh darah perifer.
Ada dua bentuk hipertensi. Bentuk esensial, yang penyebabnya belum diketahui, kemungkinan karena faktor keturunan. Bentuk lannya, hipertensi yang disebabkan oleh faktor lingkungan yang biasanya sangat erat hubungannya dengan pola makan kurang baik. Faktor makanan yang sangat berpengaruh adalah kelebihan lemak (obesitas), konsumsi garam dapur yang tinggi, merokok serta minum alkohol.
Di Amerika, setiap tahun hampir separuh jumlah kematian disebabkan oleh faktor kelebihan konsumsi garam (natrium/sodium). Sumber utama natrium di sana adalah garam dapur. Namun di Indonesia, selain garam dapur dan ikan asin, sumber lain yang lebih potensial adalah monosodium glutamat (MSG/vetsin).
Kadar natrium dalam 1 gram garam dapur setara dengan kadar natrium yang terkandung dalam 3 gram
(1 sendok teh) MSG/vetsin. Satu gram garam dapur bisa membuat 1 mangkuk sup menjadi asin.
Sebaliknya 3 gram MSG tidak terasa asin, justru terasa gurih, sehingga secara tidak sadar dengan
mudah bisa kebablasan konsumsi MSG dan keracunan. Ini belum terhitung dari paparan MSG dalam berbagai makanan lainnya, yang membuat konsumen secara perlahan mulai toleran dan menimbukan
efek kecanduan. Sehingga bila MSG diberikan dalam jumlah sedikit, tidak akan terasa gurihnya. Jika kebiasaan ini berlangsung berkepanjangan (10–20 tahun), tidak mustahil rakyat Indonesia akan mengalami gejala hipertensi akibat keracunan MSG.
Kenapa Bisa Darah Tinggi?
Seseorang dinyatakan mengidap hipertensi bila tekanan sistoliknya mencapai di atas 140 mmHg dan tekanan diastolik di atas 90 mmHg. Tekanan sistolik adalah tekanan maksimum dimana jantung berkontraksi dan memompa darah ke luar, sedangkan tekanan diastolik adalah tekanan dimana jantung sedang mengalami relaksasi, menerima curahan darah dari pembuluh darah perifer.
Ada dua bentuk hipertensi. Bentuk esensial, yang penyebabnya belum diketahui, kemungkinan karena faktor keturunan. Bentuk lannya, hipertensi yang disebabkan oleh faktor lingkungan yang biasanya sangat erat hubungannya dengan pola makan kurang baik. Faktor makanan yang sangat berpengaruh adalah kelebihan lemak (obesitas), konsumsi garam dapur yang tinggi, merokok serta minum alkohol.
Anak Sulit Makan Berakibat Fatal
Sulit makan pada anak dapat berakibat fatal bila dipicu oleh penyakit atau kelainan tertentu. Kesulitan ini bisa seperti anak tidak mau menelan makanan dan cuma ditahan dalam mulut, bahkan dikeluarkan lagi, juga menolak atau melawan pada waktu makan. Mungkin bisa juga makan terlalu sedikit atau sebaliknya, hanya mau makan jenis makanan tertentu misalnya susu, cepat bosan dengan makanan yang disajikan dan lain-lain
Gangguan tersebut dapat menimpa semua kelompok usia anak, dari mulai bayi yang baru lahir sampai akhir masa anak-anak (berkisar 18 tahun). Namun jenis, penyebab, derajat dan lamanya diperkirakan berbeda-beda. Derajat kesulitan makan mungkin sederhana, cuma berlangsung singkat seperti kurang nafsu makan, seperti yang biasa ditemukan ketika anak menderita penyakit infeksi akut. Kesulitan makan pun bisa berlangsung lama dan berat, sehingga berdampak fatal.
Memang kelainan tersebut dapat disebabkan oleh suatu penyakit tertentu, tetapi bisa juga muncul dari multifaktor. Faktor ini dibagi menjadi tiga kelompok, yaitu nutrisi (kemampuan untuk mengonsumsi makanan tertentu), kelainan organik, dan gangguan jiwa. Akibatnya, kesehatan tubuh, tumbuh kembang dan aktivitas sehari-hari anak menjadi terhambat. Misalnya pada kelainan yang singkat, anak menjadi kehabisan energi akut, sampai pingsan atau kejang-kejang, karena tak makan beberapa hari.
Sedangkan pada anak yang tidak menyukai sayuran atau buah-buahan dapat terkena kekurangan vitamin A. Anak pun bisa tekena anemia dan defisiensi besi, jika hanya mengonsumsi susu murni, sehingga berdampak buruk pada kekebalan dan kecerdasan otak. Kekurangan makan dalam waktu lama dapat menghambat pertumbuhan serta perkembangan, pada bayi disebut dengan ‘gagal tumbuh’ atau terjadi malnutrisi energi protein pada balita
Gangguan tersebut dapat menimpa semua kelompok usia anak, dari mulai bayi yang baru lahir sampai akhir masa anak-anak (berkisar 18 tahun). Namun jenis, penyebab, derajat dan lamanya diperkirakan berbeda-beda. Derajat kesulitan makan mungkin sederhana, cuma berlangsung singkat seperti kurang nafsu makan, seperti yang biasa ditemukan ketika anak menderita penyakit infeksi akut. Kesulitan makan pun bisa berlangsung lama dan berat, sehingga berdampak fatal.
Memang kelainan tersebut dapat disebabkan oleh suatu penyakit tertentu, tetapi bisa juga muncul dari multifaktor. Faktor ini dibagi menjadi tiga kelompok, yaitu nutrisi (kemampuan untuk mengonsumsi makanan tertentu), kelainan organik, dan gangguan jiwa. Akibatnya, kesehatan tubuh, tumbuh kembang dan aktivitas sehari-hari anak menjadi terhambat. Misalnya pada kelainan yang singkat, anak menjadi kehabisan energi akut, sampai pingsan atau kejang-kejang, karena tak makan beberapa hari.
Sedangkan pada anak yang tidak menyukai sayuran atau buah-buahan dapat terkena kekurangan vitamin A. Anak pun bisa tekena anemia dan defisiensi besi, jika hanya mengonsumsi susu murni, sehingga berdampak buruk pada kekebalan dan kecerdasan otak. Kekurangan makan dalam waktu lama dapat menghambat pertumbuhan serta perkembangan, pada bayi disebut dengan ‘gagal tumbuh’ atau terjadi malnutrisi energi protein pada balita
Anak Kelebihan Beban?
Anak-anak yang memiliki masa depan cerah merupakan impian semua orang tua. Oleh karena itu, anak-anak jaman sekarang memiliki begitu banyak kegiatan di luar sekolah, di antaranya pelajaran les pelajaran (les matematika, les komputer, les bahasa inggris, dll) da, les tambahan (les piano, les balet, les melukis, les renang, les bela diri, dll). Namun jadwal yang padat seperti itu dapat membuat Anak menjadi kelebihan beban, sehingga dapat membuat mereka stres dan merasa tertekan.
1 di antara 4 anak usia sekolah menderita stres akibat aktivitas yang berlebihan. Anak-anak perlu agar mereka dapat bereksperimen dengan aktivitas yang dimilikinya, kemudian dibebaskan untuk memilih mana yang disukainya. Pakar berpendapat agar anak tidak memiliki 3 kegiatan pada suatu waktu, seperti 1 kegiatan sosial, 1 kegiatan olahraga, dan 1 kegiatan untuk meningkatkan keterampilan yang dimilikinya.
Namun jika Anda menemukan anak merasa tertekan, lakukan :
Monitor tingkah laku anak Perhatikan setiap tingkah laku anak Anda. Sikap kasar, perubahan perasaan yang mencolok (sebentar ia akan merasa murung, kemudian gembira, lalu kembali murung), prestasi menurun, perubahan pola makan, sulit tidur merupakan tanda-tanda anak stres.
Susun kembali agenda anak
Tanyakan kepada anak aktivitas apa yang mereka sukai. Kemudian tanyakanlah kepada diri Anda sendiri, apakah Anda lebih menyukai anak melakukan kegiatan-kegiatan tersebut dibanding anak Anda sendiri.
Berilah anak waktu untuk bermain dan menikmati masa kecil mereka
Sisihkan paling sedikit 1 jam setiap hari dan beberapa jam di akhir pekan agar anak-anak dapat bermain.
1 di antara 4 anak usia sekolah menderita stres akibat aktivitas yang berlebihan. Anak-anak perlu agar mereka dapat bereksperimen dengan aktivitas yang dimilikinya, kemudian dibebaskan untuk memilih mana yang disukainya. Pakar berpendapat agar anak tidak memiliki 3 kegiatan pada suatu waktu, seperti 1 kegiatan sosial, 1 kegiatan olahraga, dan 1 kegiatan untuk meningkatkan keterampilan yang dimilikinya.
Namun jika Anda menemukan anak merasa tertekan, lakukan :
Monitor tingkah laku anak Perhatikan setiap tingkah laku anak Anda. Sikap kasar, perubahan perasaan yang mencolok (sebentar ia akan merasa murung, kemudian gembira, lalu kembali murung), prestasi menurun, perubahan pola makan, sulit tidur merupakan tanda-tanda anak stres.
Susun kembali agenda anak
Tanyakan kepada anak aktivitas apa yang mereka sukai. Kemudian tanyakanlah kepada diri Anda sendiri, apakah Anda lebih menyukai anak melakukan kegiatan-kegiatan tersebut dibanding anak Anda sendiri.
Berilah anak waktu untuk bermain dan menikmati masa kecil mereka
Sisihkan paling sedikit 1 jam setiap hari dan beberapa jam di akhir pekan agar anak-anak dapat bermain.
Jumat, 18 Juli 2008
Biologi Hati & Kandung Empedu
Hati dan kandung empedu terletak di perut kanan bagian atas, dan keduanya dihubungkan oleh suatu saluran yang dikenal sebagai duktus biliaris (saluran empedu). Hati merupakan organ kompleks yang melaksanakan berbagai fungsi vital, mulai dari mengatur kadar zat kimia dalam tubuh sampai menghasilkan zat-zat pembekuan darah. Sedangkan kandung empedu merupakan tempat penyimpanan empedu, yaitu cairan pencernaan yang dihasilkan oleh hati.
HATI
Hati merupakan organ tubuh yang paling besar dan paling kompleks. Salah satu fungsinya adalah menghancurkan zat-zat yang berbahaya yang diserap dari usus atau bagian tubuh lainnya, kemudian membuangnya sebagai zat yang tidak berbahaya ke dalam empedu atau darah. Zat di dalam empedu akan masuk ke dalam usus lalu dibuang melalui tinja. Zat di dalam darah disaring oleh ginjal dan dibuang melalui air kemih.
Hati menghasilkan separuh dari kolesterol tubuh, sisanya berasal dari makanan. Sekitar 80% kolesterol yang dibuat di hati digunakan untuk membuat empedu. Kolesterol juga diperlukan untuk membuat hormon-hormon tertentu, seperti hormon estrogen, testosteron, dan adrenal.
Hati juga merubah zat-zat di dalam makanan menjadi karbohidrat, protein, dan lemak. Gula disimpan di dalam hati sebagai glikogen dan kemudian dipecah serta dilepaskan ke dalam aliran darah sebagai glukosa, sesuai dengan kebutuhan tubuh (misalnya ketika kadar gula darah terlalu rendah).
Fungsi lain dari hati adalah membuat berbagai senyawa penting, terutama protein, yang digunakan tubuh untuk menjalankan fungsinya.
Ada dua macam kelainan fungsi hati yang utama, yaitu:
Kelainan yang disebabkan oleh gangguan fungsi sel-sel di dalam hati (misalnya sirosis atau hepatitis)
Kelainan yang disebabkan oleh adanya penyumbatan aliran empedu dari hati melalui saluran empedu (misalnya batu empedu atau kanker)
KANDUNG EMPEDU
Kandung empedu merupakan kantong otot kecil yang berfungsi untuk menyimpan empedu, yaitu cairan pencernaan berwarna kuning kehijauan yang dihasilkan oleh hati. Jika kita makan, kandung empedu akan berkontraksi dan mengosongkan empedu ke dalam usus untuk membantu pencernaan lemak dan vitamin-vitamin tertentu.
Empedu itu sendiri terdiri dari:
Garam-garam empedu
Elektrolit
Pigmen empedu (misalnya bilirubin)
Kolesterol
Lemak
Fungsi empedu adalah untuk membuang limbah tubuh tertentu (terutama pigmen hasil pemecahan sel darah merah dan kelebihan kolesterol) serta membantu pencernaan dan penyerapan lemak.
Garam empedu dapat meningkatkan kelarutan kolesterol, lemak, dan vitamin yang larut dalam lemak, sehingga membantu penyerapannya dari usus. Hemoglobin yang berasal dari penghancuran sel darah merah akan diubah menjadi bilirubin (pigmen utama dalam empedu) dan dibuang ke dalam empedu. Berbagai protein yang memegang peranan penting dalam fungsi empedu juga disekresi dalam empedu.
HATI
Hati merupakan organ tubuh yang paling besar dan paling kompleks. Salah satu fungsinya adalah menghancurkan zat-zat yang berbahaya yang diserap dari usus atau bagian tubuh lainnya, kemudian membuangnya sebagai zat yang tidak berbahaya ke dalam empedu atau darah. Zat di dalam empedu akan masuk ke dalam usus lalu dibuang melalui tinja. Zat di dalam darah disaring oleh ginjal dan dibuang melalui air kemih.
Hati menghasilkan separuh dari kolesterol tubuh, sisanya berasal dari makanan. Sekitar 80% kolesterol yang dibuat di hati digunakan untuk membuat empedu. Kolesterol juga diperlukan untuk membuat hormon-hormon tertentu, seperti hormon estrogen, testosteron, dan adrenal.
Hati juga merubah zat-zat di dalam makanan menjadi karbohidrat, protein, dan lemak. Gula disimpan di dalam hati sebagai glikogen dan kemudian dipecah serta dilepaskan ke dalam aliran darah sebagai glukosa, sesuai dengan kebutuhan tubuh (misalnya ketika kadar gula darah terlalu rendah).
Fungsi lain dari hati adalah membuat berbagai senyawa penting, terutama protein, yang digunakan tubuh untuk menjalankan fungsinya.
Ada dua macam kelainan fungsi hati yang utama, yaitu:
Kelainan yang disebabkan oleh gangguan fungsi sel-sel di dalam hati (misalnya sirosis atau hepatitis)
Kelainan yang disebabkan oleh adanya penyumbatan aliran empedu dari hati melalui saluran empedu (misalnya batu empedu atau kanker)
KANDUNG EMPEDU
Kandung empedu merupakan kantong otot kecil yang berfungsi untuk menyimpan empedu, yaitu cairan pencernaan berwarna kuning kehijauan yang dihasilkan oleh hati. Jika kita makan, kandung empedu akan berkontraksi dan mengosongkan empedu ke dalam usus untuk membantu pencernaan lemak dan vitamin-vitamin tertentu.
Empedu itu sendiri terdiri dari:
Garam-garam empedu
Elektrolit
Pigmen empedu (misalnya bilirubin)
Kolesterol
Lemak
Fungsi empedu adalah untuk membuang limbah tubuh tertentu (terutama pigmen hasil pemecahan sel darah merah dan kelebihan kolesterol) serta membantu pencernaan dan penyerapan lemak.
Garam empedu dapat meningkatkan kelarutan kolesterol, lemak, dan vitamin yang larut dalam lemak, sehingga membantu penyerapannya dari usus. Hemoglobin yang berasal dari penghancuran sel darah merah akan diubah menjadi bilirubin (pigmen utama dalam empedu) dan dibuang ke dalam empedu. Berbagai protein yang memegang peranan penting dalam fungsi empedu juga disekresi dalam empedu.
Mengelola Diabetes
Tujuan kita mengelola Diabetes adalah peningkatan kualitas hidup para penyandang Diabetes dan untuk jangka pendek menghilangkan keluhan atau gejala, mempertahankan rasa nyaman dan tercapainya target pengendalian glukosa darah. Sedangkan tujuan jangka panjangnya adalah untuk mencegah dan menghambat terjadinya komplikasi. Semua ini akan menurunkan angka kesakitan dan resiko kematian akibat Diabetes. Konsep penanganan penyakit kardiometabolik yang saat ini dianut, menyarankan pengendalian glukosa darah bersama-sama dengan pengendalian tekanan darah dan lemak darah.
Studi terbesar dan terlama yang dilakukan di Inggris, yaitu United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS), menunjukkan bahwa mengendalikan kadar glukosa darah dapat menurunkan risiko terjadinya komplikasi pada retina (selaput jala) mata yang dapat berakhir dengan kebutaan, komplikasi ginjal, dan komplikasi syaraf. Studi ini juga mendapatkan bahwa mengendalikan tekanan darah akan menurunkan risiko terjadinya stroke, kematian, gagal jantung, komplikasi ginjal, retina. Menurutnya kadar lipid darah) istilah awamnya: kolesterol) akan mengurangi risiko terjadinya serangan jantung, stroke, dan amputasi kaki.
Target parameter dari kadar / keadaan yang diharapkan :
Glukosa darah puasa (80 - 99 mg/dL)
Glukosa darah 2 jam sesudah makan (80 - 144 mg/dL)
Hemoglobin A1C (< 6.5 %)
Kolesterol total (< 200 mg/dL)
Kolesterol LDL (< 100 mg/dL)
Kolesterol HDL (wanita : > 50 mg/dL, pria : > 40 mg/dL)
Trigliserida (< 150 mg/dL)
Indeks massa tubuh (18.5 - 22.9 kg/m2)
Tekanan Darah (< atayu sama dengan 130 / 80 mmHg)
Indeks massa tubuh (IMT) adalah hasil pembagian berat badan dalam kilogram dengan kuadrat dari tinggi badan dalam meter (BB / (TB)2)
Sumber : www.kalbenutritionals.com
Studi terbesar dan terlama yang dilakukan di Inggris, yaitu United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS), menunjukkan bahwa mengendalikan kadar glukosa darah dapat menurunkan risiko terjadinya komplikasi pada retina (selaput jala) mata yang dapat berakhir dengan kebutaan, komplikasi ginjal, dan komplikasi syaraf. Studi ini juga mendapatkan bahwa mengendalikan tekanan darah akan menurunkan risiko terjadinya stroke, kematian, gagal jantung, komplikasi ginjal, retina. Menurutnya kadar lipid darah) istilah awamnya: kolesterol) akan mengurangi risiko terjadinya serangan jantung, stroke, dan amputasi kaki.
Target parameter dari kadar / keadaan yang diharapkan :
Glukosa darah puasa (80 - 99 mg/dL)
Glukosa darah 2 jam sesudah makan (80 - 144 mg/dL)
Hemoglobin A1C (< 6.5 %)
Kolesterol total (< 200 mg/dL)
Kolesterol LDL (< 100 mg/dL)
Kolesterol HDL (wanita : > 50 mg/dL, pria : > 40 mg/dL)
Trigliserida (< 150 mg/dL)
Indeks massa tubuh (18.5 - 22.9 kg/m2)
Tekanan Darah (< atayu sama dengan 130 / 80 mmHg)
Indeks massa tubuh (IMT) adalah hasil pembagian berat badan dalam kilogram dengan kuadrat dari tinggi badan dalam meter (BB / (TB)2)
Sumber : www.kalbenutritionals.com
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